Chapter Two
To understand an abstract teaching, it is often useful to focus on the analogies with which it is explained. This gives not only a concrete reference point to make the teachings intelligible, but also an idea of the initial insight that led to the teaching to begin with. Abstractions come from concrete experience, and the analogies with which they are explained often provide a hint as to what those initial experiences were. This in turn gives an indication of how the teachings can be best understood and where best applied.
This point is especially important in understanding dependent co-arising, for over the centuries the Buddhist tradition has changed the analogies and images with which this teaching is explained. We have already noted that medieval Indian Buddhists interpreted dependent co-arising as a circular wheel, distorting the complexity of the original teaching in many important ways. Another distortion has been the tendency, first articulated in medieval China, to depict the inter-relations of the factors of dependent co-arising through another image of a circle: light reflecting from mirrors arranged in a circle around a lamp. Each mirror contains not only a reflection of the lamp, but also the reflections of the other mirrors in the circle. Although this image conveys an idea of the complex interplay of conditions in dependent co-arising, it is essentially static, as the pattern of light never changes. In fact, in the original formulation of this image, it is not meant to change. The causal interplay is meant to be seen as innocent and even beautiful, something to be celebrated and admired, and never to end.
The Buddha, however, depicted the interplay of conditions in dependent co-arising in another light entirely. When introducing the topic of causality to young novices, he illustrated it with the act of eating, a process that is inherently stressful not only for those fed upon, but also for those who, through the disease of hunger (Dhp 203), keep needing to feed.
§ 34. “What is one? All beings subsist on nutriment.” — Khp 4
In making this statement, the Buddha was drawing on a long tradition of speculation on the topic of food that dated back to early Vedic times in India and continued to excite new theories in the Upaniṣads that were composed around his own time. This speculation was prompted by the fact that the Vedic ritual — in which animals were slaughtered and offered into the fire — was meant as an offering of food to the gods and to one’s dead ancestors, as well as a stock-piling of food for one’s own future use in the life after death.
As the Upaniṣadic seers contemplated the deeper meaning of this ritual, they focused on the importance of food for all life. This became the underlying image for all of their thinking. In this, they differed radically from modern Western philosophy, whose underlying image is the act of seeing an object. Of the physical senses, the visual sense requires the most active participation of the brain to interpret its sensory data. The eye simply provides patches of colors, while the brain has to point it in different directions, focus it at different depths, and then interpret the color patches, together with the movements of the eye muscles, to perceive objects in three dimensional space. Thus the primary questions that arise in this context are: How much can we trust our interpretations of reality “out there”, and how can we best test them? These are the questions that have provoked most philosophical thought in the Western tradition for many centuries.
The central activity that provoked the thought of the Upaniṣadic seers, however, was the act of ingesting food. The essential questions in this context are: Given that we know we have to eat in order to survive, how do we distinguish what is good to eat from what is bad to eat? And how do we insure a continuing source of good food? This line of thinking provides the paradigm for a more general contemplation of how to find a basis for true happiness, and how that basis for happiness can be maintained.
Although the different Upaniṣadic seers explored this topic in different ways, a summary of some of their conclusions shows the general drift of their speculation.
In the original emanation of the cosmos, Being gave rise to fire, which gave rise to water, which gave rise to food. Only then were individual beings able to come into existence (ChU VI.2.4). Food was thus the eldest among beings (TU II.2.1): in some cases identified as a god (BAU III.9.8; ChU I.11.9), in others identified with Brahman, the great cosmic principle itself (TU III.2.1). Some thinkers stated the food was one’s true self (MaiU VI.11- 13).
Upaniṣadic thought is marked by a strong tendency to internalize the Vedic ritual, claiming that knowledge of the inner meaning of the ritual or of the true nature of Brahman and the self can provide rewards similar to — or better than — the physical performance of the ritual. This same tendency appears in Upaniṣadic thought about food. The reward of understanding the esoteric meaning of the Sama Veda, for example, is ample food in this life and the next (ChU I.13.4). Knowledge of the true nature of the self supplies one with food in all possible worlds (ChU V.18.1). One attains immortality through the ability to keep producing food in this way again and again (BAU I.5.2).
The basic assumption of this speculation is that one’s continued survival as a being is an unquestioned good. The ability to produce and consume an unlimited supply of food is an even greater good. Thus this mode of speculation conceives of a cosmos created with the express purpose of providing food. The act of eating is given value as an expression of the way things were meant to be.
The most succinct expression of these ideas is stated in Taittirīya Upaniṣad II.2.1, a passage that bears comparing with the passage from Khp 4, quoted above: “From food, indeed, are produced those creatures that dwell on earth. Furthermore, solely through food do they live, and then also into it they pass at the end.” Because food is sometimes equated with Brahman and sometimes with the self, the pattern of this image parallels the larger pattern of most Upaniṣadic thought, that the self comes from Brahman, eventually returns to Brahman, and is sustained by Brahman in the interim. In fact, this larger pattern may derive from the more concrete experience of food and feeding as depicted in this passage.
Although the Buddha drew on the image of feeding to illustrate his teachings, he made a number of changes on the theme. The most important was that he called into question the desirability of engaging in the act of feeding for eternity. He agreed that the attainment of an ultimate happiness was the ultimate goal of all human thought and endeavor, but because he had found a happiness that was totally unconditioned, attained only through abandoning his identity as a “being” of any sort — either as self or Brahman — he was able to look past the supposed goodness of the act of eating to see the suffering and stress that it inevitably involved. One of the marks of nibbana as a superior goal was that it freed one from the need to feed, at the same time freeing other beings from being subject to one’s feeding. Because one’s attachment to food derives from one’s attachment to one’s identity as a being, he would often find ways of calling that identity into question and encouraging his followers to do their best to abandon it.
§ 35. Then Ven. Rādha went to the Blessed One and, on arrival, having bowed down to him sat to one side. As he was sitting there he said to the Blessed One: “‘A being,’ lord. ‘A being,’ it’s said. To what extent is one said to be ‘a being’?”
“Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for form, Rādha, when one is caught up [satta] there, tied up [visatta] there, one is said to be ‘a being [satta].’ “Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for feeling… perception… fabrications…
“Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for consciousness, Rādha, when one is caught up there, tied up there, one is said to be ‘a being.’
“Just as when boys or girls are playing with little sand castles [literally, 'dirt houses'], as long as they are not free from passion, desire, love, thirst, fever, and craving for those little sand castles, that’s how long they have fun with those sand castles, enjoy them, treasure them, feel possessive of them. But when they become free from passion, desire, love, thirst, fever, and craving for those little sand castles, then they smash them, scatter them, demolish them with their hands or feet and make them unfit for play.
“In the same way, Rādha, you too should smash, scatter, and demolish form, and make it unfit for play. Practice for the ending of craving for form.
“You should smash, scatter, and demolish feeling, and make it unfit for play. Practice for the ending of craving for feeling.
“You should smash, scatter, and demolish perception, and make it unfit for play. Practice for the ending of craving for perception.
“You should smash, scatter, and demolish fabrications, and make them unfit for play. Practice for the ending of craving for fabrications.
“You should smash, scatter, and demolish consciousness and make it unfit for play. Practice for the ending of craving for consciousness, because the ending of craving, Rādha, is Unbinding.” — SN 23:2
This analysis applies not only to the sense of individual, separate self, but also to the idea of a cosmic self.
§ 36. “Monks, where a self or what belongs to self are not pinned down as a truth or reality, then the view-position — ‘This cosmos is the self. After death this I will be constant, permanent, eternal, not subject to change. I will stay just like that for an eternity’ — isn’t it utterly and completely a fool’s teaching?” — MN 22
The way to abandon one’s attachment for the raw material of any sense of identity is to follow the same process explored in Chapter One, learning to look at it in terms of the four noble truths, training oneself to see the origination of one’s identity as based on a type of food or nutriment, and then trying to induce a sense of disenchantment both for the identity and for the food. Because the Pali term for disenchantment — nibbida — can also mean disgust, revulsion, or distaste, the process of abandoning attachment is thus similar to the process of overcoming an addiction to a particular type of food.
§ 37. Ven. Sāriputta [speaking to the Buddha]: “One sees with right discernment, lord, that ‘this has come into being.’ Seeing with right discernment that ‘this has come into being,’ one practices for disenchantment with, for dispassion toward, for the cessation of what has come into being. One sees with right discernment that ‘it has come into being from this nutriment.’ Seeing with right discernment that ‘it has come into being from this nutriment,’ one practices for disenchantment with, for dispassion toward, for the cessation of the nutriment by which it has come into being. One sees with right discernment that ‘from the cessation of this nutriment, what has come into being is subject to cessation.’ Seeing with right discernment that ‘from the cessation of this nutriment, what has come into being is subject to cessation,’ one practices for disenchantment with, for dispassion toward, for the cessation of what is subject to cessation. This is how one is a learner.
“And how, lord, is one a person who has fathomed the Dhamma?
“One sees with right discernment, lord, that ‘this has come into being.’ Seeing with right discernment that ‘this has come into being,’ one is — through disenchantment, dispassion, cessation, through lack of clinging/sustenance — released from what has come into being. One sees with right discernment that ‘it has come into being from this nutriment.’ Seeing with right discernment that ‘it has come into being from this nutriment,’ one is — through disenchantment, dispassion, cessation, through lack of clinging/sustenance — released from the nutriment by which it has come into being. One sees with right discernment that ‘from the cessation of this nutriment, what has come into being is subject to cessation.’ Seeing with right discernment that ‘from the cessation of this nutriment, what has come into being is subject to cessation,’ one is — through disenchantment, dispassion, cessation, through lack of clinging/sustenance — released from what is subject to cessation. This is how one is a person who has fathomed the Dhamma.” — SN 12:31
Both MN 9 and Sn 3:12 show that when the pattern of the four noble truths is applied to the topic of nutriment, it brings the same results as when applied to any of the factors of dependent co-arising.
§ 38. “‘Whatever stress comes into play is all from nutriment as a requisite condition’: this is one contemplation. ‘From the remainderless fading and cessation of that very nutriment, there is no coming into play of stress’: this is a second contemplation. For a monk rightly contemplating this duality in this way — heedful, ardent, and resolute — one of two fruits can be expected: either gnosis right here and now, or — if there be any remnant of clinging/sustenance — nonreturn.”
That is what the Blessed One said. Having said that, the One Well-gone, the Teacher, said further:
“Any stress that comes into play
is all from nutriment
as a requisite
condition.
With the cessation of nutriment,
there is no stress
coming into play.
Knowing this drawback —
that stress comes from nutriment
as a requisite
condition —
comprehending all nutriment,
independent of all nutriment,
rightly seeing
freedom from disease
through the total ending
of effluents,
judiciously associating,
a judge,
he, an attainer-of-wisdom,
goes beyond judgment,
beyond classification.” — Sn 3:12
MN 9 expands on this point in two important ways. 1) “Nutriment” covers not only physical food for the body, but also three kinds of “food” for the growth of sensory consciousness into states of becoming: contact at the senses; the intentions that lead one to engage in contact at the senses and then proliferate on that contact; and consciousness of all these processes. 2) In listing craving as a condition for nutriment, MN 9 places nutriment in the position normally held by clinging in the standard description of dependent co-arising, immediately after craving. This position is connected to several facts. To begin with, the Pali word for craving, taṇha, also means thirst; the Pali word for clinging, upādāna, also means sustenance — both the act of taking sustenance and the nutriment that provides sustenance. Thus thirst leads to the act of clinging to nutriment. As §40 points out, any passion and delight — any clinging — for nutriment underlies the growth of consciousness; as §113 points out, consciousness acts as the seed for becoming. Thus, by placing nutriment in the same position as clinging, MN 9 is simply providing more detail on the way in which nutriment, clinging, and consciousness act as conditions for becoming. Only when the mind is freed from craving and clinging is it freed from its tendency to feed. And only then is it freed from the need to keep producing the becoming that leads to suffering and stress.
§ 39. “And what is nutriment? What is the origination of nutriment? What is the cessation of nutriment? What is the way of practice leading to the cessation of nutriment?
“There are these four nutriments for the maintenance of beings who have come into being or for the support of those in search of a place to be born. Which four? Physical food, gross or refined, contact as the second, intellectual intention the third, and consciousness the fourth. From the origination of craving comes the origination of nutriment. From the cessation of craving comes the cessation of nutriment. And the way of practice leading to the cessation of nutriment is just this very noble eightfold path: right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.
“Now, when a disciple of the noble ones discerns nutriment, the origination of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way of practice leading to the cessation of nutriment in this way, when — having entirely abandoned passion-obsession, having abolished aversion-obsession, having uprooted the view-and- conceit obsession ‘I am’; having abandoned ignorance and given rise to clear knowing — he has put an end to suffering and stress right in the here-and-now, it is to this extent, too, that a disciple of the noble ones is a person of right view, one whose view is made straight, who is endowed with verified confidence in the Dhamma, and who has arrived at this true Dhamma.” — MN 9
§ 40. “Where there is passion, delight, and craving for the nutriment of physical food, consciousness lands there and increases. Where consciousness lands and increases, there is the alighting of name-and-form. Where there is the alighting of name-and-form, there is the growth of fabrications. Where there is the growth of fabrications, there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. Where there is the production of renewed becoming in the future, there is future birth, aging, and death, together, I tell you, with sorrow, affliction, and despair. “Where there is passion, delight, and craving for the nutriment of contact…. “Where there is passion, delight, and craving for the nutriment of intellectual intention….
“Where there is passion, delight, and craving for the nutriment of consciousness, consciousness lands there and increases. Where consciousness lands and increases, there is the alighting of name-and-form. Where there is the alighting of name-and-form, there is the growth of fabrications. Where there is the growth of fabrications, there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. Where there is the production of renewed becoming in the future, there is future birth, aging, and death, together, I tell you, with sorrow, affliction, and despair.
“Just as — when there is dye, lac, yellow orpiment, indigo, or crimson — a dyer or painter would paint the picture of a woman or a man, complete in all its parts, on a well-polished panel or wall, or on a piece of cloth, in the same way, where there is passion, delight, and craving for the nutriment of physical food… contact… intellectual intention… consciousness, consciousness lands there and increases. Where consciousness lands and increases, there is the alighting of name-and-form. Where there is the alighting of name-and-form, there is the growth of fabrications. Where there is the growth of fabrications, there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. Where there is the production of renewed becoming in the future, there is future birth, aging, and death, together, I tell you, with sorrow, affliction, and despair.
“Where there is no passion for the nutriment of physical food, where there is no delight, no craving, then consciousness does not land there or increase. Where consciousness does not land or increase, there is no alighting of name-and- form. Where there is no alighting of name-and-form, there is no growth of fabrications. Where there is no growth of fabrications, there is no production of renewed becoming in the future. Where there is no production of renewed becoming in the future, there is no future birth, aging, and death. That, I tell you, has no sorrow, affliction, or despair.
“Where there is no passion for the nutriment of contact…. “Where there is no passion for the nutriment of intellectual intention…. “Where there is no passion for the nutriment of consciousness, where there is no delight, no craving, then consciousness does not land there or increase. Where consciousness does not land or increase, there is no alighting of name-and- form. Where there is no alighting of name-and-form, there is no growth of fabrications. Where there is no growth of fabrications, there is no production of renewed becoming in the future. Where there is no production of renewed becoming in the future, there is no future birth, aging, and death. That, I tell you, has no sorrow, affliction, or despair.
“Just as if there were a roofed house or a roofed hall having windows on the north, the south, or the east. When the sun rises, and a ray has entered by way of the window, where does it land?”
“On the western wall, lord.”
“And if there is no western wall, where does it land?”
“On the ground, lord.”
“And if there is no ground, where does it land?”
“On the water, lord.”
“And if there is no water, where does it land?” “It doesn’t land, lord.”
“In the same way, where there is no passion for the nutriment of physical food… contact… intellectual intention… consciousness, where there is no delight, no craving, then consciousness does not land there or increase. Where consciousness does not land or increase, there is no alighting of name-and-form. Where there is no alighting of name-and-form, there is no growth of fabrications. Where there is no growth of fabrications, there is no production of renewed becoming in the future. Where there is no production of renewed becoming in the future, there is no future birth, aging, and death. That, I tell you, has no sorrow, affliction, or despair.” — SN 12:64
This freedom can be attained only by developing a form of knowledge that induces a strong sense of disenchantment/revulsion/disgust/distaste for the four nutriments. To induce perceptions that would help in this endeavor, the Buddha gave some graphic analogies for what it means to feed.
§ 41. “There are these four nutriments for the maintenance of beings who have come into being or for the support of those in search of a place to be born. Which four? Physical food, gross or refined; contact as the second, intellectual intention the third, and consciousness the fourth. These are the four nutriments for the maintenance of beings who have come into being or for the support of those in search of a place to be born.
“And how is physical food to be regarded? Suppose a couple, husband and wife, taking meager provisions, were to travel through a desert. With them would be their only baby son, dear and appealing. Then the meager provisions of the couple going through the desert would be used up and depleted while there was still a stretch of the desert yet to be crossed. The thought would occur to them, ‘Our meager provisions are used up and depleted while there is still a stretch of this desert yet to be crossed. What if we were to kill this only baby son of ours, dear and appealing, and make dried meat and jerky. That way — chewing on the flesh of our son — at least the two of us would make it through this desert. Otherwise, all three of us would perish.’ So they would kill their only baby son, loved and endearing, and make dried meat and jerky. Chewing on the flesh of their son, they would make it through the desert. While eating the flesh of their only son, they would beat their breasts, (crying,) ‘Where have you gone, our only baby son? Where have you gone, our only baby son?’ Now what do you think, monks, would that couple eat that food playfully or for intoxication, or for putting on bulk, or for beautification?”
“No, lord.”
“Wouldn’t they eat that food simply for the sake of making it through that desert?”
“Yes, lord.”
“In the same way, I tell you, is the nutriment of physical food to be regarded. When physical food is comprehended, passion for the five strings of sensuality is comprehended. When passion for the five strings of sensuality is comprehended, there is no fetter bound by which a disciple of the noble ones would come back again to this world.
“And how is the nutriment of contact to be regarded? Suppose a flayed cow were to stand leaning against a wall. The creatures living in the wall would chew on it. If it were to stand leaning against a tree, the creatures living in the tree would chew on it. If it were to stand exposed to water, the creatures living in the water would chew on it. If it were to stand exposed to the air, the creatures living in the air would chew on it. For wherever the flayed cow were to stand exposed, the creatures living there would chew on it. In the same way, I tell you, is the nutriment of contact to be regarded. When the nutriment of contact is comprehended, the three feelings [pleasure, pain, neither pleasure nor pain] are comprehended. When the three feelings are comprehended, I tell you, there is nothing further for a disciple of the noble ones to do.
“And how is the nutriment of intellectual intention to be regarded? Suppose there were a pit of glowing embers, deeper than a man’s height, full of embers that were neither flaming nor smoking, and a man were to come along — loving life, hating death, loving pleasure, abhorring pain — and two strong men, having grabbed him by the arms, were to drag him to the pit of embers. To get far away would be that man’s intention, far away would be his wish, far away would be his aspiration. Why is that? Because he would realize, ‘If I fall into this pit of glowing embers, I will meet with death from that cause, or with death-like pain.’ In the same way, I tell you, is the nutriment of intellectual intention to be regarded. When the nutriment of intellectual intention is comprehended, the three forms of craving [for sensuality, for becoming, and for non-becoming] are comprehended. When the three forms of craving are comprehended, I tell you, there is nothing further for a disciple of the noble ones to do.
“And how is the nutriment of consciousness to be regarded? Suppose that, having arrested a thief, a criminal, they were to show him to the king: ‘This is a thief, a criminal for you, your majesty. Impose on him whatever punishment you like.’ So the king would say, ‘Go, men, and shoot him in the morning with a hundred spears.’ So they would shoot him in the morning with a hundred spears. Then the king would say at noon, ‘Men, how is that man?’ ‘Still alive, your majesty.’ So the king would say, ‘Go, men, and shoot him at noon with a hundred spears.’ So they would shoot him at noon with a hundred spears. Then the king would say in the evening, ‘Men, how is that man?’ ‘Still alive, your majesty.’ So the king would say, ‘Go, men, and shoot him in the evening with a hundred spears.’ So they would shoot him in the evening with a hundred spears. Now what do you think, monks: Would that man, being shot with three hundred spears a day, experience pain and distress from that cause?”
“Even if he were to be shot with only one spear, lord, he would experience pain and distress from that cause, to say nothing of three hundred spears.”
“In the same way, I tell you, monks, is the nutriment of consciousness to be regarded. When the nutriment of consciousness is comprehended, name and form are comprehended. When name and form are comprehended, I tell you, there is nothing further for a disciple of the noble ones to do.” — SN 12:63
As the image of the flayed cow in the above passage suggests, one of the most disconcerting aspects of feeding is that the things the mind tries to take for nourishment end up chewing on it — or even chewing it up.
§ 42. “Thus an instructed disciple of the noble ones reflects in this way, ‘I am now being chewed up by form. But in the past I was also chewed up by form in the same way I am now being chewed up by present form. And if I delight in future form, then in the future I will be chewed up by form in the same way I am now being chewed up by present form.’ Having reflected in this way, he becomes indifferent to past form, does not delight in future form, and is practicing for the sake of disenchantment, dispassion, and cessation with regard to present form.
“[He reflects] ‘I am now being chewed up by feeling … perception … fabrications … consciousness. But in the past I was also chewed up by consciousness in the same way I am now being chewed up by present consciousness. And if I delight in future consciousness, then in the future I will be chewed up by consciousness in the same way I am now being chewed up by present consciousness.’ Having reflected in this way, he becomes indifferent to past consciousness, does not delight in future consciousness, and is practicing for the sake of disenchantment, dispassion, and cessation with regard to present consciousness.” — SN 22:70
Although the path of practice aims ultimately at going beyond the need for nutriment, it cannot be accomplished by starving oneself of physical food.
§ 43. “I thought: ‘Suppose I were to practice going altogether without food.’ Then devas came to me and said, ‘Dear sir, please don’t practice going altogether without food. If you go altogether without food, we’ll infuse divine nourishment in through your pores, and you will survive on that.’ I thought, ‘If I were to claim to be completely fasting while these devas are infusing divine nourishment in through my pores, I would be lying.’ So I dismissed them, saying, ‘Enough.’
“I thought, ‘Suppose I were to take only a little food at a time, only a handful at a time of bean soup, lentil soup, vetch soup, or pea soup.’ So I took only a little food at a time, only a handful at a time of bean soup, lentil soup, vetch soup, or pea soup. My body became extremely emaciated. Simply from my eating so little, my limbs became like the jointed segments of vine stems or bamboo…. My backside became like a camel’s hoof…. My spine stood out like a string of beads…. My ribs jutted out like the jutting rafters of an old, run-down barn…. The gleam of my eyes appeared to be sunk deep in my eye sockets like the gleam of water deep in a well…. My scalp shriveled and withered like a green bitter gourd, shriveled and withered in the heat and the wind…. The skin of my belly became so stuck to my spine that when I thought of touching my belly, I grabbed hold of my spine as well; and when I thought of touching my spine, I grabbed hold of the skin of my belly as well…. If I urinated or defecated, I fell over on my face right there…. Simply from my eating so little, if I tried to ease my body by rubbing my limbs with my hands, the hair — rotted at its roots — fell from my body as I rubbed, simply from eating so little.
“People on seeing me would say, ‘Gotama the contemplative is black. Other people would say, ‘Gotama the contemplative isn’t black, he’s brown.’ Others would say, ‘Gotama the contemplative is neither black nor brown, he’s golden-skinned. So much had the clear, bright color of my skin deteriorated, simply from eating so little.
“I thought, ‘Whatever priests or contemplatives in the past have felt painful, racking, piercing feelings due to their striving, this is the utmost. None have been greater than this. Whatever priests or contemplatives in the future will feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to their striving, this is the utmost. None will be greater than this. Whatever priests or contemplatives in the present are feeling painful, racking, piercing feelings due to their striving, this is the utmost. None is greater than this. But with this racking practice of austerities I haven’t attained any superior human state, any distinction in knowledge or vision worthy of the noble ones. Could there be another path to Awakening?’ “I thought, ‘I recall once, when my father the Sakyan was working, and I was sitting in the cool shade of a rose-apple tree, then — quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful mental qualities — I entered and remained in the first jhāna, rapture and pleasure born from withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought and evaluation. Could that be the path to Awakening?’ Then following on that memory came the realization, ‘That is the path to Awakening.’ I thought, ‘So why am I afraid of that pleasure that has nothing to do with sensuality, nothing to do with unskillful mental qualities?’ I thought, ‘I am no longer afraid of that pleasure that has nothing to do with sensuality, nothing to do with unskillful mental qualities, but that pleasure is not easy to achieve with a body so extremely emaciated. Suppose I were to take some solid food, some rice and porridge.’ So I took some solid food, some rice and porridge. Now five monks had been attending on me, thinking, ‘If Gotama, our contemplative, achieves some higher state, he will tell us.’ But when they saw me taking some solid food — some rice and porridge — they were disgusted and left me, thinking, ‘Gotama the contemplative is living luxuriously. He has abandoned his exertion and is backsliding into abundance.’
“So when I had taken solid food and regained strength, then — quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful mental qualities — I entered and remained in the first jhāna, rapture and pleasure born of seclusion, accompanied by directed thought and evaluation. But the pleasant feeling that arose in this way did not invade my mind or remain. With the stilling of directed thoughts and evaluations, I entered and remained in the second jhāna, rapture and pleasure born of concentration, unification of awareness free from directed thought and evaluation/internal assurance. But the pleasant feeling that arose in this way did not invade my mind or remain. With the fading of rapture I remained equanimous, mindful, and alert, and sensed pleasure with the body. I entered and remained in the third jhāna, of which the Noble Ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, he has a pleasant abiding.’ But the pleasant feeling that arose in this way did not invade my mind or remain. With the abandoning of pleasure and pain — as with the earlier disappearance of joys and distresses — I entered and remained in the fourth jhāna, purity of equanimity and mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. But the pleasant feeling that arose in this way did not invade my mind or remain.” — MN 36
Thus one must consume food in moderation to provide body and mind with the strength needed to develop the path factor of right concentration. Monks and nuns are encouraged to contemplate and monitor their consumption of food to prevent greed from abusing this fact for its own ends.
§ 44. Ven. Ānanda: “‘This body, sister, comes into being through food. And yet it is by relying on food that food is to be abandoned.’ Thus it was said. And in reference to what was it said? There is the case, sister, where a monk, considering it thoughtfully, takes food — not playfully, nor for intoxication, nor for putting on bulk, nor for beautification — but simply for the survival and continuance of this body, for ending its afflictions, for the support of the holy life, (thinking,) ‘Thus will I destroy old feelings [of hunger] and not create new feelings [from overeating]. I will maintain myself, be blameless, and live in comfort.’ Then, at a later time, he abandons food, having relied on food. ‘This body, sister, comes into being through food. And yet it is by relying on food that food is to be abandoned.’ Thus it was said, and in reference to this was it said.” — AN 4:159
The process of developing right concentration is a type of feeding — providing food for the mental qualities that foster concentration — while at the same time starving any mental qualities that stand in its way.
§ 45. “Now, what is the food for the arising of unarisen mindfulness as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of mindfulness… once it has arisen? There are mental qualities that act as a foothold for mindfulness as a factor for Awakening [well-purified virtue and views made straight]. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen mindfulness as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of mindfulness… once it has arisen.
“And what is the food for the arising of unarisen analysis of qualities as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of analysis of qualities… once it has arisen? There are mental qualities that are skillful and unskillful, blameworthy and blameless, gross and refined, siding with darkness and with light. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen analysis of qualities as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of analysis of qualities… once it has arisen.
“And what is the food for the arising of unarisen persistence as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of persistence… once it has arisen? There is the potential for effort, the potential for exertion, the potential for striving. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen persistence as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of persistence… once it has arisen.
“And what is the food for the arising of unarisen rapture as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of rapture… once it has arisen? There are mental qualities that act as a foothold for rapture as a factor for Awakening. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen rapture as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of rapture… once it has arisen.
“And what is the food for the arising of unarisen serenity as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of serenity… once it has arisen? There is physical serenity and there is mental serenity. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen serenity as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of serenity… once it has arisen. “And what is the food for the arising of unarisen concentration as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of concentration…once it has arisen? There are themes for calm, themes for non-distraction [these are the four frames of reference—§83]. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen concentration as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of concentration… once it has arisen.
“And what is the food for the arising of unarisen equanimity as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of equanimity… once it has arisen? There are mental qualities that act as a foothold for equanimity as a factor for Awakening. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen equanimity as a factor for Awakening, or for the growth and increase of equanimity… once it has arisen.
“Now, what is lack of food for the arising of unarisen sensual desire, or for the growth and increase of sensual desire once it has arisen? There is the theme of unattractiveness. To foster appropriate attention to it: This is lack of food for the arising of unarisen sensual desire, or for the growth and increase of sensual desire once it has arisen.
“And what is lack of food for the arising of unarisen ill will, or for the growth and increase of ill will once it has arisen? There is the release of the mind [through good will, compassion, appreciation, or equanimity]. To foster appropriate attention to that: This is lack of food for the arising of unarisen ill will, or for the growth and increase of ill will once it has arisen.
“And what is lack of food for the arising of unarisen sloth and drowsiness, or for the growth and increase of sloth and drowsiness once it has arisen? There is the potential for effort, the potential for exertion, the potential for striving. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is lack of food for the arising of unarisen sloth and drowsiness, or for the growth and increase of sloth and drowsiness once it has arisen.
“And what is lack of food for the arising of unarisen restlessness and anxiety, or for the growth and increase of restlessness and anxiety once it has arisen? There is stillness of awareness. To foster appropriate attention to that: This is lack of food for the arising of unarisen restlessness and anxiety, or for the growth and increase of restlessness and anxiety once it has arisen.
“And what is lack of food for the arising of unarisen uncertainty, or for the growth and increase of uncertainty once it has arisen? There are mental qualities that are skillful and unskillful, blameworthy and blameless, gross and refined, siding with darkness and with light. To foster appropriate attention to them: This is lack of food for the arising of unarisen uncertainty, or for the growth and increase of uncertainty once it has arisen.” — SN 46:51
As right concentration grows stronger, it becomes a type of food for the mind.
§ 46. “Just as a royal frontier fortress has large stores of grass, timber and water for the delight, convenience, and comfort of those within, and to ward off those without, in the same way the disciple of the noble ones, quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first jhāna — rapture and pleasure born of seclusion, accompanied by directed thought and evaluation — for his own delight, convenience, and comfort, and to alight on Unbinding.
“Just as a royal frontier fortress has large stores of rice and barley for the delight, convenience, and comfort of those within, and to ward off those without, in the same way the disciple of the noble ones, with the stilling of directed thoughts and evaluations, enters and remains in the second jhāna — rapture and pleasure born of concentration, unification of awareness free from directed thought and evaluation/internal assurance — for his own delight, convenience, and comfort, and to alight on Unbinding.
“Just as a royal frontier fortress has large stores of sesame, green gram, and other beans for the delight, convenience, and comfort of those within, and to ward off those without, in the same way the disciple of the noble ones, with the fading of rapture, remains equanimous, mindful, and alert, and senses pleasure with the body. He enters and remains in the third jhāna, of which the Noble Ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, he has a pleasant abiding,’ for his own delight, convenience, and comfort, and to alight on Unbinding.
“Just as a royal frontier fortress has large stores of tonics — ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, molasses, and salt — for the delight, convenience, and comfort of those within, and to ward off those without, in the same way the disciple of the noble ones, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, as with the earlier disappearance of joys and distresses, enters and remains in the fourth jhāna — purity of equanimity and mindfulness, neither-pleasure-nor-pain — for his own delight, convenience, and comfort, and to alight on Unbinding.” — AN 7:63
§ 47. How very happily we live,
we who have nothing.
We will feed on rapture
like the Radiant devas. — Dhp 200
However, because jhāna is composed of aggregates, there comes a point in the practice where one must stop using even jhāna as food for continued being, and instead develop disenchantment for it.
§ 48. “For a monk practicing the Dhamma in accordance with the Dhamma, this is what accords with the Dhamma: that he keep cultivating disenchantment with regard to form, that he keep cultivating disenchantment with regard to feeling, that he keep cultivating disenchantment with regard to perception, that he keep cultivating disenchantment with regard to fabrications, that he keep cultivating disenchantment with regard to consciousness. As he keeps cultivating disenchantment with regard to form… feeling… perception… fabrications… consciousness, he comprehends form… feeling… perception… fabrications… consciousness. As he comprehends form… feeling… perception… fabrications… consciousness, he is totally released from form… feeling… perception… fabrications… consciousness. He is totally released from sorrows, lamentations, pains, distresses, and despairs. He is totally released, I tell you, from suffering and stress.” — SN 22:39
§ 49. “Suppose that an archer or archer’s apprentice were to practice on a straw man or mound of clay, so that after a while he would become able to shoot long distances, to fire accurate shots in rapid succession, and to pierce great masses. In the same way, there is the case where a monk… enters and remains in the first jhāna, [with] rapture and pleasure born of seclusion, accompanied by directed thought and evaluation. He regards whatever phenomena there that are connected with form, feeling, perception, fabrications, and consciousness, as inconstant, stressful, a disease, a cancer, an arrow, painful, an affliction, alien, a disintegration, an emptiness, not-self. He turns his mind away from those phenomena, and having done so, inclines his mind to the property of deathlessness: ‘This is peace, this is exquisite — the pacification of all fabrications, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the ending of craving, dispassion, cessation, Unbinding.’
“Staying right there, he reaches the ending of the effluents. Or, if not, then — through this very Dhamma-passion, this Dhamma-delight, and from the total wasting away of the first five Fetters [self-identity views, grasping at precepts and practices, uncertainty, sensual passion, and irritation] — he is due to be reborn (in the Pure Abodes), there to be totally unbound, never again to return from that world….
[Similarly with the second, third, and fourth jhāna.]
“…. Suppose that an archer or archer's apprentice were to practice on a straw man or mound of clay, so that after a while he would become able to shoot long distances, to fire accurate shots in rapid succession, and to pierce great masses. In the same way, there is the case where a monk… enters and remains in the dimension of the infinitude of space. He regards whatever phenomena there that are connected with feeling, perception, fabrications, and consciousness, as inconstant, stressful, a disease, a cancer, an arrow, painful, an affliction, alien, a disintegration, an emptiness, not-self. He turns his mind away from those phenomena, and having done so, inclines his mind to the property of deathlessness: ‘This is peace, this is exquisite — the pacification of all fabrications, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the ending of craving, dispassion, cessation, Unbinding.’
“Staying right there, he reaches the ending of the effluents. Or, if not, then — through this very Dhamma-passion, this very Dhamma-delight, and from the total wasting away of the first five of the fetters — he is due to be reborn (in the Pure Abodes), there to be totally unbound, never again to return from that world…. ”
[Similarly with the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness and the dimension of nothingness.] — AN 9:36
Perhaps to counteract the common fear that the release of nibbana is a type of starvation, Khp 6 depicts it as a form of consumption in which one’s food is totally free — freely available, free from debt, and free from suffering.
§ 50. Those who, devoted, firm-minded,
apply themselves to Gotama’s message,
on attaining their goal, plunge into the deathless,
freely eating the liberation they’ve gained. — Khp 6
However, verses in the Pali Canon more generally depict nibbana as a dimension in which there is simply no more need for food of any kind.
§ 51. With the stilling of consciousness, the monk
free from hunger
is totally unbound….
While those who comprehend contact,
delighting in stilling through discernment,
they, by breaking through contact,
free from hunger,
are totally unbound….
See the world, together with its devas:
conceiving not-self to be self.
Entrenched in name and form,
they conceive that ‘This is true.’
In whatever terms they conceive it
it turns into something other than that,
and that’s what’s false about it:
changing,
it’s deceptive by nature.
Undeceptive by nature
is Unbinding:
That the noble ones know
as true.
They, by breaking through
to the truth,
free from hunger,
are totally unbound. — Sn 3:12
§ 52. Not hoarding,
having comprehended food,
their pasture — emptiness
and freedom without sign:
their trail,
like that of birds through space,
can’t be traced.
Effluents ended,
independent of nutriment,
their pasture — emptiness
and freedom without sign:
their trail,
like that of birds through space,
can’t be traced. — Dhp 92-93
