Chapter 3: Three Levels
When analyzing becoming as a factor in dependent co-arising, the Buddha does not define it. Instead, he simply notes that it can occur on three levels.
“Which becoming? These three becomings: sensuality-becoming, form-becoming, & formless-becoming. This is called becoming.”— SN 12:2
Elsewhere he notes that these three levels can be ranked on ascending levels of refinement, and that they are produced by levels of kamma that grow successively more refined.
The Buddha: “If there were no kamma ripening in the sensuality-property, would sensuality-becoming be discerned?”
Ven. Ānanda: “No, lord.”
The Buddha: “Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a lower property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future.
“If there were no kamma ripening in the form-property, would form-becoming be discerned?”
Ven. Ānanda: “No, lord.”
The Buddha: “Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a middling property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future.
“If there were no kamma ripening in the formless-property, would formless-becoming be discerned?”
Ven. Ānanda: “No, lord.”
The Buddha: “Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a refined property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. This is how there is becoming.”— AN 3:76
An underlying principle in the relationship between kamma and becoming is that kammic seeds can vary widely in the amount of time they take to sprout.
“The result of kamma is of three sorts, I tell you: that which arises right here & now, that which arises later, and that which arises following that.”— AN 6:63
This passage can be read in two ways: “Here and now” can mean either this very moment or in this very lifetime. In the first case, “later” would mean later in this lifetime; in the second, in the next lifetime. In either case, “following that” would mean in lifetimes to come. Thus the results of a particular type of action may come immediately, or perhaps not for many lifetimes. Sometimes they may come both immediately and repeatedly for a long time to come.
An important point to remember is that, in talking about kammic results, we are talking about tendencies. Because a person performs kamma with every choice—virtually with every moment—many acts of kamma are performed in a single day. As days full of kamma get added together into weeks, months, and years, the resulting lines of causality can become hopelessly intertwined, leading to unexpected results. Although the following discussion will touch briefly on the complications of conflicting kammic threads, its main focus will be on the general tendencies for each of the three types of kamma to produce a corresponding type of result. These tendencies will be viewed in two time frames: cases in which the results appear in this lifetime and those in which they appear later.
They will also be viewed within the framework of the categories of sensuality, form, and formlessness into which the Buddha divides kamma and becoming in AN 3:76. These categories are apparently derived from meditative experience. The mind enters first jhāna, or mental absorption, by secluding itself from sensuality. It leaves the fourth jhāna and enters the dimension of the infinitude of space—the first of the four “formlessnesses,” or in the words of the commentaries, the four formless jhānas—by dropping all perceptions of form, resistance, and diversity. Thus, when the mind has not entered jhāna it experiences the level of sensuality; from the first through the fourth jhāna it experiences the level of form; and in the four formless jhānas it experiences the formless level.
The terms “sensuality,” “form,” and “formless” each have a precise range of meanings.
“Sensuality” (kāma) has two ranges of meaning in the Pāli discourses. In what was apparently its general meaning in the Buddha’s time, it denotes sensual pleasures. However, the Buddha—where precision was required—also gave it a different and more specific meaning.
“There are these five strings of sensuality. Which five? Forms cognizable via the eye—agreeable, pleasing, charming, endearing, accompanied by sensuality, enticing; sounds cognizable via the ear… aromas cognizable via the nose… flavors cognizable via the tongue… tactile sensations cognizable via the body—agreeable, pleasing, charming, endearing, accompanied by sensuality, enticing. But these are not sensuality. They are called strings of sensuality in the discipline of the noble ones.
“The passion for his resolves is a man’s sensuality,
not the beautiful sensualities
found in the world.
The passion for his resolves is a man’s sensuality.”— AN 6:63
Notice that sensuality here does not simply mean sensual passions. It means passion for sensual thoughts and desires—the mind’s tendency to be more addicted to sensual desire per se than to specific sensual pleasures. A common example would be the man who quickly tires of his latest sexual conquest and finds more enjoyment in the search for his next.
This technical meaning is apparently the one intended in reference to levels of becoming, for “sensuality-becoming” applies not only to experiences of sensual pleasure but also to experiences of sensual pain, where one’s passion for sensual resolves is thwarted.
The word “form” (rūpa) similarly carries two meanings. In some contexts it denotes visual forms—those visible to the eye of the flesh or to the inner eye of the mind. In others it denotes the kinesthetic sense of the body—the sense of the body as felt from within. In meditation practice, either meaning can be relevant. On the one hand, the standard similes for jhāna practice depict a fully inhabited inner sense of the whole body.
“Then, quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful mental qualities, he enters & remains in the first jhāna: rapture & pleasure born of seclusion, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. He permeates & pervades, suffuses & fills this very body with the rapture & pleasure born of seclusion. Just as if a skilled bathman or bathman’s apprentice would pour bath powder into a brass basin and knead it together, sprinkling it again & again with water, so that his ball of bath powder—saturated, moisture-laden, permeated within & without—would nevertheless not drip; even so, the monk permeates… this very body with the rapture & pleasure born of seclusion. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by rapture & pleasure born of seclusion….
“Then, with the stilling of directed thoughts & evaluations, he enters & remains in the second jhāna: rapture & pleasure born of concentration, unification of awareness free from directed thought & evaluation—internal assurance. He permeates & pervades, suffuses & fills this very body with the rapture & pleasure born of concentration. Just like a lake with spring-water welling up from within, having no inflow from the east, west, north, or south, and with the skies supplying abundant showers time & again, so that the cool fount of water welling up from within the lake would permeate & pervade, suffuse & fill it with cool waters, there being no part of the lake unpervaded by the cool waters; even so, the monk permeates… this very body with the rapture & pleasure born of concentration. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by rapture & pleasure born of concentration….
“Then, with the fading of rapture, he remains equanimous, mindful, & alert, and senses pleasure with the body. He enters & remains in the third jhāna, of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding.’ He permeates & pervades, suffuses & fills this very body with the pleasure divested of rapture. Just as in a lotus pond, some of the lotuses, born & growing in the water, stay immersed in the water and flourish without standing up out of the water, so that they are permeated & pervaded, suffused & filled with cool water from their roots to their tips, and nothing of those lotuses would be unpervaded with cool water; even so, the monk permeates… this very body with the pleasure divested of rapture. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded with pleasure divested of rapture….
“Then, with the abandoning of pleasure & pain—as with the earlier disappearance of joys & distresses—he enters & remains in the fourth jhāna: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither-pleasure-nor-pain. He sits, permeating the body with a pure, bright awareness. Just as if a man were sitting covered from head to foot with a white cloth so that there would be no part of his body to which the white cloth did not extend; even so, the monk sits, permeating the body with a pure, bright awareness. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by pure, bright awareness.”— MN 119
On the other hand, there are some meditators whose experience of concentration involves the internal perceptions of visual forms and light.
“As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute, I perceived light without seeing forms, or saw forms without perceiving light for a whole day, a whole night, a whole day & night. The thought occurred to me, ‘What is the cause, what is the reason…?’ Then it occurred to me, ‘When I attend to the theme of light without attending to the theme of forms, I perceive light without seeing forms. When I attend to the theme of forms without attending to the theme of light, I see forms without seeing light for a whole day, a whole night, a whole day & night.’
“As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute, I perceived limited light & saw limited forms; I perceived unlimited light & saw unlimited forms for a whole day, a whole night, a whole day & night. The thought occurred to me, ‘What is the cause, what is the reason…?’ Then it occurred to me, ‘When my concentration is limited, my sense of (inner) vision is limited. When my concentration is unlimited, my sense of (inner) vision is unlimited. With an unlimited sense of vision I perceive unlimited light & see unlimited forms for a whole day, a whole night, a whole day & night.’”— MN 128
Thus, because the most stable and skillful type of “form-becoming” consists of concentration of either sort, the word “form” here can mean either forms visible to the mind’s eye or the inner sense of the form of the body.
As for “formless” (arūpa), it is used primarily to denote four stages of concentration based on the equanimity of the fourth jhāna:
“Then there is the case where a monk, with the complete transcending of perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of resistance, and not heeding perceptions of diversity, (perceiving,) ‘Infinite space,’ enters & remains in the dimension of the infinitude of space….
“Then there is the case where a monk, with the complete transcending of the dimension of the infinitude of space, (perceiving,) ‘Infinite consciousness,’ enters & remains in the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness….
“Then there is the case where a monk, with the complete transcending of the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, (perceiving,) ‘There is nothing,’ enters & remains in the dimension of nothingness….
“Then there is the case where a monk, with the complete transcending of the dimension of nothingness, enters & remains in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.”— AN 9:34
These states of concentration—whether based on a perception of form or formlessness—are simply stable versions of mental states that the human mind can traverse more fleetingly when not so firmly concentrated. Thus when the mind focuses on abstract notions in a less stable way, it is also experiencing brief tastes of the form and formless levels. In fact, this seems to be one of the distinctive features of the human mind: its ability to move freely through the levels of sensuality, form, and formlessness in a short span of time.
Note that each of these three levels of becoming is shaped by the mental kamma of an act of perception.
“It is with a cause, monks, that sensual thinking occurs, and not without a cause…. And how, monks, does sensual thinking occur with a cause and not without a cause? In dependence on the property of sensuality there occurs the perception of sensuality. In dependence on the perception of sensuality there occurs the resolve for sensuality… the desire for sensuality… the fever for sensuality… the quest for sensuality. Questing for sensuality, monks, an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person conducts himself wrongly through three means: through body, through speech, & through mind.”— SN 14:12
“For one attaining the first jhāna, the perception of sensuality is ceased…. For one attaining the dimension of the infinitude of space, the perception of form is ceased.”— DN 32
Sensuality consists of a passion for sensual resolves and perceptions; the experience of form builds from a perception of form; and the formless experiences build from such perceptions as the perception of the infinitude of space and the perception of the infinitude of consciousness. Thus these acts of perception shape both the immediate actions they inspire and the field of opportunities that those actions allow the mind to “tune-in” to. Because these opportunities constitute the full range of the cosmos that can be experienced, this means that the range of opportunities offered by the cosmos for all possible states of becoming depends primarily on mental kamma, past and present—thus the close connection between psychology and cosmology in the Buddha’s teachings. This principle of the primacy of mental kamma in shaping one’s experience of the cosmos applies not only to the production of becoming in the present life, but also to the production of becoming in lives after death.
Buddhist texts postdating the Canon provide complete and detailed maps of the cosmos, classifying the different levels of birth according to the threefold classification of sensuality, form, and formlessness. In these maps, the sensual levels include hell, the level of common animals, the level of hungry ghosts, the human level, and the sensual heavens. The form level includes the lower brahmā worlds; while the formless level includes the higher brahmā worlds.
The Pāli discourses, on the other hand, contain no maps based on this classification. In fact, they contain no comprehensive maps of the cosmos at all. Various discourses mention different levels of the cosmos—sometimes in an orderly progression, sometimes in a more haphazard way—but the Buddha apparently never intended to provide a complete cosmology. Instead, he gave fragments of a cosmology here and there only when such fragments were necessary to explain suffering and its cessation.
Nevertheless, these fragments show clearly that the levels of the cosmos do have features that correspond to the threefold classification of sensuality, form, and formlessness; and that future rebirths on these levels are connected to the type of kamma developed in this life. At the same time, however, kamma in the present life can influence one’s experience of the present life on any of these levels as well.
To begin with, sensuality. Kamma ripening on the level of sensuality can either be unskillful—motivated by greed, aversion, or delusion—or skillful, motivated by a lack of these qualities. Skillful sensual kamma manifests in acts of generosity and virtue; unskillful sensual kamma, in their opposite.
When generosity and virtue bear fruit in the present life, that fruit is pleasant.
“One who is generous, a master of giving, is dear & charming to people at large. And the fact that one who is generous, a master of giving, is dear & charming to people at large: This is a fruit of generosity visible in the here & now.
“Then again, good people, people of integrity, admire one who is generous, a master of giving…. This, too, is a fruit of generosity visible in the here & now.
“Then again, the fine reputation of one who is generous, a master of giving, is spread far & wide…. This, too, is a fruit of generosity visible in the here & now.
“Then again, when one who is generous, a master of giving, approaches any assembly of people—noble warriors, brahmans, householders, or contemplatives—he/she does so confidently & without embarrassment…. This, too, is a fruit of generosity visible in the here & now.”— AN 5:34
“There is the case where a disciple of the noble ones, abandoning the taking of life, abstains from taking life. In doing so, he gives freedom from danger, freedom from animosity, freedom from oppression to limitless numbers of beings. In giving freedom from danger, freedom from animosity, freedom from oppression to limitless numbers of beings, he gains a share in limitless freedom from danger, freedom from animosity, and freedom from oppression….
“Then again, abandoning taking what is not given [stealing], the disciple of the noble ones abstains from taking what is not given. In doing so, he gives freedom from danger… to limitless numbers of beings. In giving freedom from danger… to limitless numbers of beings, he gains a share in limitless freedom from danger….
“Then again, abandoning illicit sex, the disciple of the noble ones abstains from illicit sex. In doing so, he gives freedom from danger… to limitless numbers of beings. In giving freedom from danger… to limitless numbers of beings, he gains a share in limitless freedom from danger….
“Then again, abandoning lying, the disciple of the noble ones abstains from lying. In doing so, he gives freedom from danger… to limitless numbers of beings. In giving freedom from danger… to limitless numbers of beings, he gains a share in limitless freedom from danger….
“Then again, abandoning the use of intoxicants, the disciple of the noble ones abstains from taking intoxicants. In doing so, he gives freedom from danger, freedom from animosity, freedom from oppression to limitless numbers of beings. In giving freedom from danger, freedom from animosity, freedom from oppression to limitless numbers of beings, he gains a share in limitless freedom from danger, freedom from animosity, and freedom from oppression.”— AN 8:39
“There is the case where the disciple of the noble ones recollects his own virtues, thus: ‘(They are) untorn, unbroken, unspotted, unsplattered, liberating, praised by the wise, untarnished, conducive to concentration.’ As he is recollecting virtue, his mind is calmed, and joy arises; the defilements of his mind are abandoned, just as when a mirror is cleansed through the proper technique. And how is a mirror cleansed through the proper technique? Through the use of oil & ashes & chamois & the appropriate human effort. This is how a mirror is cleansed through the proper technique. In the same way, the defiled mind is cleansed through the proper technique. And how is the defiled mind cleansed through the proper technique? There is the case where the disciple of the noble ones recollects his own virtues…. As he is recollecting virtue, his mind is cleansed, and joy arises; the defilements of his mind are abandoned. He is thus called a disciple of the noble ones undertaking the virtue-uposatha. He lives with virtue. It is owing to virtue that his mind is calmed, that joy arises, and that whatever defilements there are in his mind are abandoned.”— AN 3:71
When the results of unskillful sensual kamma are experienced in the present life, they are painful. Not only that, they can also encourage further unskillful kamma.
“Greed itself is unskillful. Whatever a greedy person fabricates by means of body, speech, or intellect, that too is unskillful. Whatever suffering a greedy person—his mind overcome with greed, his mind consumed—wrongly inflicts on another person through beating or imprisonment or confiscation or placing blame or banishment, (with the thought,) ‘I have power. I want power,’ that too is unskillful. Thus it is that many evil, unskillful qualities/events—born of greed, caused by greed, originated through greed, conditioned by greed—come into play.
[Similarly with aversion and delusion.]
“And a person like this is called one who speaks at the wrong time, speaks what is unfactual, speaks what is irrelevant, speaks contrary to the Dhamma, speaks contrary to the Vinaya. Why…? Because of having wrongly inflicted suffering on another person through beating or imprisonment or confiscation or placing blame or banishment, (with the thought,) ‘I have power. I want power.’ When told what is factual, he denies it and doesn’t acknowledge it. When told what is unfactual, he doesn’t make an ardent effort to untangle it (to see), ‘This is unfactual. This is baseless.’ That’s why a person like this is called one who speaks at the wrong time, speaks what is unfactual, speaks what is irrelevant, speaks contrary to the Dhamma, speaks contrary to the Vinaya.
“A person like this—his mind overcome with evil, unskillful qualities born of greed… born of aversion… born of delusion, his mind consumed—dwells in suffering right in the here-&-now—feeling threatened, turbulent, feverish—and at the break-up of the body, after death, can expect a bad destination.
“Just as a sal tree, a birch, or an aspen, when smothered & surrounded by three parasitic vines, falls into misfortune, falls into disaster, falls into misfortune & disaster, in the same way, a person like this—his mind overcome with evil, unskillful qualities born of greed… born of aversion… born of delusion, his mind consumed—dwells in suffering right in the here-&-now—feeling threatened, turbulent, feverish—and at the break-up of the body, after death, can expect a bad destination.”— AN 3:69
Unskillful sensual kamma can also prevent the opportunity of mastering kamma on the level of form.
“Without abandoning these five qualities, one is incapable of entering & remaining in the first jhāna… the second jhāna… the third jhāna… the fourth jhāna…. Which five? Stinginess as to one’s monastery (lodgings)… one’s family (of supporters)… one’s gains… one’s status, and stinginess as to the Dhamma [being unwilling to share one’s knowledge of the Dhamma].”— AN 5:255-256 [AN 5:257-258 repeats this list, replacing “stinginess as to the Dhamma” with “ingratitude.”]
The results of sensual kamma in the present life can also extend to future lives in other levels of the cosmos, which are described in sensual terms.
“I have seen a hell named ‘Six Spheres of Contact.’ Whatever form one sees there with the eye is undesirable, never desirable; displeasing, never pleasing; disagreeable, never agreeable. Whatever sound one hears there with the ear… Whatever aroma one smells there with the nose… Whatever flavor one tastes there with the tongue… Whatever tactile sensation one touches there with the body… Whatever idea one cognizes there with the intellect is undesirable, never desirable; displeasing, never pleasing; disagreeable, never agreeable….
“I have seen a heaven named ‘Six Spheres of Contact.’ Whatever form one sees there with the eye is desirable, never undesirable; pleasing, never displeasing; agreeable, never disagreeable. Whatever sound one hears there with the ear… Whatever aroma one smells there with the nose… Whatever flavor one tastes there with the tongue… Whatever tactile sensation one touches there with the body… Whatever idea one cognizes there with the intellect is desirable, never undesirable; pleasing, never displeasing; agreeable, never disagreeable.”— SN 35:135
Rebirth in the lower realms—or an unpleasant human birth—is the result of having acted in harmful ways.
“Monks, the taking of life—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from the taking of life is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to a short life span.
“Stealing—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from stealing is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to the loss of one’s wealth.
“Illicit sexual behavior—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from illicit sexual behavior is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to rivalry & revenge.
“Telling falsehoods—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from telling falsehoods is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to being falsely accused.
“Divisive tale-bearing—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from malicious tale-bearing is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to the breaking of one’s friendships.
“Harsh speech—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from harsh speech is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to unappealing sounds.
“Frivolous chattering—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from frivolous chattering is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to words that aren’t worth taking to heart.
“The drinking of fermented & distilled liquors—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a common animal, leads to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The slightest of all the results coming from drinking fermented & distilled liquors is that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to mental derangement.”— AN 8:40
“Monks, there are animals that feed on grass. They eat dried grass or fresh, cropping it with their teeth. And which animals feed on grass? Horses, cattle, donkeys, goats, deer, or any other animals that feed on grass. A fool who formerly delighted in flavors here and did evil actions here, on the break-up of the body, after death, appears in the company of animals, animals that feed on grass.
“There are animals that feed on excrement. Smelling excrement from afar, they come running, (thinking,) ‘We’ll eat there! We’ll eat there!’ Just as brahmans run to the smell of a sacrifice, (thinking,) ‘We’ll eat there! We’ll eat there!’ In the same way, there are animals that feed on excrement…. And which animals feed on excrement? Fowls, pigs, dogs, jackals, or any other animals that feed on excrement. A fool who formerly delighted in flavors here and did evil actions here, on the break-up of the body, after death, appears in the company of animals, animals that feed on excrement.
“There are animals that are born in darkness, age in darkness, and die in darkness….
“There are animals that are born in water, age in water, and die in water….
“There are animals that are born in filth, age in filth, and die in filth. And which animals are born in filth, age in filth, and die in filth? Those animals that are born, age, and die in rotten fish… in a rotten corpse… in spoiled porridge… in a cesspit… in a sewer, or any other animals that are born in filth, age in filth, and die in filth. A fool who formerly delighted in flavors here and did evil actions here, on the break-up of the body, after death, appears in the company of animals, animals that are born in filth, age in filth, and die in filth.
“In many ways, monks, I could tell you the story of the animal birth—so much so that it would not be easy to finish with the description of how painful the animal birth is.”— MN 129
The various hells are the most painful locations of the level of sensuality. Among their special torments is the induced anticipation of respite and release—an anticipation repeatedly thwarted.
“Then the hell-wardens torture him [an evil-doer] with what’s called a five-fold imprisonment. They drive a red-hot iron stake through one hand, they drive a red-hot iron stake through the other hand, they drive a red-hot iron stake through one foot, they drive a red-hot iron stake through the other foot, they drive a red-hot iron stake through the middle of his chest. There he feels painful, racking, piercing feelings, yet he does not die as long as his evil deed is not exhausted.
“Then the hell-wardens lay him down and slice him with axes… they hold him feet up & head down and slice him with adzes… they harness him to a chariot and drive him back & forth over ground that is burning, blazing, & glowing… they make him climb up & down a vast mountain of embers that is burning, blazing, & glowing… they hold him feet up & head down and plunge him into a red-hot copper cauldron that is burning, blazing, & glowing….
“Then the hell-wardens throw him into the Great Hell…. The flame that leaps from the eastern wall of the Great Hell strikes the western wall. The flame that leaps from the western wall strikes the eastern wall. The flame that leaps from the northern wall strikes the southern wall. The flame that leaps from the southern wall strikes the northern wall. The flame that leaps from the bottom strikes the top. The flame that leaps from the top strikes the bottom….
“There ultimately comes a time when, with the passing of a long stretch of time, the eastern gate of the Great Hell opens. He runs there, rushing quickly. As he runs there, rushing quickly, his outer skin burns, his inner skin burns, his flesh burns, his tendons burn, even his bones turn to smoke…. When he finally gets there, the door slams shut…. [Similarly with the western gate, the northern gate, & the southern gate.] ….
“There ultimately comes a time when, with the passing of a long stretch of time, the eastern gate of the Great Hell opens. He runs there, rushing quickly…. He gets out through the gate. But right next to the Great Hell is a vast Excrement Hell. He falls into that…. Right next to the Excrement Hell is the vast Hot Ashes Hell… the vast Simbali Forest Hell… the vast Sword-leaf Tree Forest Hell. He enters that….
“Then the hell-wardens pull him out with a hook and, placing him on the ground, say to him, ‘Well, my good man, what do you want?’ He replies, ‘I’m hungry, venerable sirs.’ So the hell-wardens pry open his mouth with red-hot iron tongs, burning, blazing, & glowing, and throw into it a copper ball, burning, blazing, & glowing…. Then the hell-wardens say to him, ‘Well, my good man, what do you want?’ He replies, ‘I’m thirsty, venerable sirs.’ So the hell-wardens pry open his mouth with red-hot iron tongs, burning, blazing, & glowing, and pour into it molten copper, burning, blazing, & glowing…. There he feels painful, racking, piercing feelings, yet he does not die as long as his evil deed is not exhausted.
“Then the hell-wardens throw him back into the Great Hell once more….
“I tell you this, monks, not from having heard it from another contemplative or brahman. On the contrary, I tell you this just as I have known for myself, seen for myself, penetrated for myself.”— MN 130
Rebirth in the higher sensual realms—in the more pleasant forms of human birth and in the sensual deva worlds—is the result of generosity and virtuous behavior.
“Then there is the case where a woman or man, having abandoned the killing of living beings, abstains from killing living beings, and dwells with the rod laid down, the knife laid down, scrupulous, merciful, & sympathetic for the welfare of all living beings. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination, in the heavenly world. If, on the break-up of the body, after death—instead of reappearing in a good destination, in the heavenly world—he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is long-lived wherever reborn….
“Then there is the case where a woman or man is not one who harms beings with his/her fists, with clods, with sticks, or with knives. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination…. If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is healthy wherever reborn….
“Then there is the case where a woman or man is not ill-tempered or easily upset; even when heavily criticized, he/she doesn’t grow offended, provoked, malicious, or resentful; doesn’t show annoyance, aversion, or bitterness. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination…. If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is beautiful wherever reborn….
“Then there is the case where a woman or man is not envious. He/she does not envy, begrudge, or brood about others’ gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations, or veneration. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination…. If instead he/she comes to the human state, he/she is prominent wherever reborn….
“Then there is the case where a woman or man is a giver of food, drink, cloth, sandals, scents, ointments, beds, dwellings, & lighting to priests & contemplatives. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination…. If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is wealthy wherever reborn….
“Then there is the case where a woman or man is not obstinate or arrogant; he/she pays homage to those who deserve homage, rises up… gives a seat… makes way… worships… respects… reveres… honors those who should be honored. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination…. If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is highborn wherever reborn….
“Then there is the case where a woman or man, when visiting a contemplative or brahman, asks: ‘What is skillful, venerable sir? What is unskillful? What is blameworthy? What is blameless? What should be cultivated? What should not be cultivated? What, having been done by me, will be for my long-term harm & suffering? Or what, having been done by me, will be for my long-term welfare & happiness?’ Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination…. If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is discerning wherever reborn.”— MN 135
“Sāriputta, there is the case where a person gives a gift seeking his own profit, with a mind attached (to the reward), seeking to store up for himself (with the thought), ‘I’ll enjoy this after death.’ He gives his gift—food, drink, clothing, a vehicle; a garland, perfume, & ointment; bedding, shelter, & a lamp—to a contemplative or brahman. What do you think, Sāriputta? Might a person give such a gift as this?”
“Yes, lord.”
“Having given this gift seeking his own profit—with a mind attached (to the reward), seeking to store up for himself, (with the thought), ‘I’ll enjoy this after death’—on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the company of the Four Great Kings. Then, having exhausted that action, that power, that status, that sovereignty, he is a returner, coming back to this world.
“Then there is the case of a person who gives a gift not seeking his own profit, not with a mind attached (to the reward), not seeking to store up for himself, nor (with the thought), ‘I’ll enjoy this after death.’ Instead, he gives a gift with the thought, ‘Giving is good.’ He gives his gift—food, drink, clothing, a vehicle; a garland, perfume, & ointment; bedding, shelter, & a lamp—to a contemplative or brahman….
“Having given this gift with the thought, ‘Giving is good,’ on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears (in the next higher realm,) in the company of the devas of the Thirty-three. Then, having exhausted that action, that power, that status, that sovereignty, he is a returner, coming back to this world.
“Or, instead of thinking, ‘Giving is good,’ he gives a gift with the thought, ‘This was given in the past, done in the past, by my father & grandfather. It would not be right for me to let this old family custom be discontinued’… on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears (in the next higher realm,) in the company of the devas of the Hours. Then, having exhausted that action, that power, that status, that sovereignty, he is a returner, coming back to this world.
“Or, instead… he gives a gift with the thought, ‘I am well-off. These are not well-off. It would not be right for me, being well-off, not to give a gift to those who are not well-off’… on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears (in the next higher realm,) in the company of the Contented devas. Then, having exhausted that action, that power, that status, that sovereignty, he is a returner, coming back to this world.
“Or, instead… he gives a gift with the thought, ‘Just as there were the great sacrifices of the sages of the past… in the same way will this be my distribution of gifts’… on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears (in the next higher realm,) in the company of the devas who delight in creation. Then, having exhausted that action, that power, that status, that sovereignty, he is a returner, coming back to this world.
“Or, instead… he gives a gift with the thought, ‘When this gift of mine is given, it makes the mind serene. Gratification & joy arise’… on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears (in the next higher realm,) in the company of the devas who have power over the creations of others. Then, having exhausted that action, that power, that status, that sovereignty, he is a returner, coming back to this world.”— AN 7:49
Then Ven. Nanda went to the Blessed One and, on arrival, having bowed down to him, sat to one side. As he was sitting there, the Blessed One said to him, “Is it true, Nanda, that you have told a large number of monks, ‘I don’t enjoy leading the holy life, my friends. I can’t keep up the holy life. Giving up the training, I will return to the common life.’?”
“Yes, lord.”
“But why, Nanda, don’t you enjoy leading the holy life? Why can’t you keep up the holy life? Why, giving up the training, will you return to the common life?”
“Lord, as I was leaving home, a Sakyan girl—the envy of the countryside—glanced up at me, with her hair half-combed, and said, ‘Hurry back, master.’ Recollecting that, I don’t enjoy leading the holy life. I can’t keep up the holy life. Giving up the training, I will return to the common life.”
Then, taking Ven. Nanda by the arm—as a strong man might flex his extended arm or extend his flexed arm—the Blessed One disappeared from Jeta’s Grove and reappeared among the devas of the Thirty-three. Now on that occasion about 500 dove-footed nymphs had come to wait upon Sakka, the ruler of the devas. The Blessed One said to Ven. Nanda, “Nanda, do you see those 500 dove-footed nymphs?”
“Yes, lord.”
“What do you think, Nanda: Which is lovelier, better looking, more charming—the Sakyan girl, the envy of the countryside, or these 500 dove-footed nymphs?”
“Lord, compared to these 500 dove-footed nymphs, the Sakyan girl, the envy of the countryside, is like a cauterized monkey with its ears & nose cut off. She doesn’t count. She’s not even a small fraction. There’s no comparison. The 500 dove-footed nymphs are lovelier, better looking, more charming.”
“Then take joy, Nanda. Take joy! I am your guarantor for getting 500 dove-footed nymphs.”
“If the Blessed One is my guarantor for getting 500 dove-footed nymphs, I will enjoy leading the holy life under the Blessed One.”— Ud 3:2
“Monks, if one speaking rightly were to say of anything, ‘It’s utterly desirable, utterly charming, utterly appealing,’ one speaking rightly would say that just of heaven: ‘It’s utterly desirable, utterly charming, utterly appealing’—so much so that it’s not easy to make a comparison for how pleasant heaven is.”
When this was said, a certain monk said to the Blessed One, “But, lord, is it possible to make a comparison?”
“It is,” the Blessed One said. “Monks, suppose that a universal emperor were endowed with the seven treasures and four powers, and because of that would experience pleasure & joy.”
[Here the Buddha gives a detailed description of these treasures and powers, which briefly stated are these: The seven treasures consist of the wheel-treasure, which magically and peacefully establishes the emperor’s rule over all four directions; the elephant-treasure and the horse-treasure, either of which—leaving the palace at dawn—can take him to the ocean and back before his morning meal; the jewel-treasure that can turn night into day; the woman-treasure—his queen—who is lovely and faithful to him; the steward-treasure, who provides him with all the gold and bullion he needs; and the counselor treasure, who teaches him what is right and wrong, and rules wisely in his stead. The four powers are the power of a supremely attractive appearance, a supremely long life, supremely good health, and supreme popularity among his subjects.]
” …. Then the Blessed One, taking a small stone the size of his hand, said to the monks, “What do you think, monks? Which is greater, this small stone I have taken, the size of my hand, or the Himalayas, the king of mountains?”
“It’s next to nothing, lord, the small stone you have taken…. It doesn’t count. It‘s not even a small fraction. There’s no comparison.”
“In the same way, monks, the pleasure & joy experienced by a universal emperor because of his seven treasures and four powers doesn’t count next to the pleasures of the heavenly world. It’s not even a small fraction. There’s no comparison.”— MN 129
Despite the general correspondence of action and result, the complexity of kamma sometimes creates conditions where skillful and unskillful sensual actions seem to provide results directly opposite to what they should, either in the present life or in the next. This, however, does not negate the principle of correspondence. It simply means that the full fruits of these actions have been delayed to a later time.
“There is the case where a certain person is seen garlanded & adorned, freshly bathed & groomed, with hair & beard trimmed, enjoying the sensualities of women as if he were a king. They ask about him: ‘My good man, what has this man done that he has been garlanded & adorned… as if he were a king?’ They answer: ‘My good man, this man attacked the king’s enemy and took his life. The king, gratified with him, rewarded him. That is why he is garlanded & adorned… as if he were a king.’
“Then there is the case where a certain person is seen bound with a stout rope with his arms pinned tightly against his back, his head shaved bald, marched to a harsh-sounding drum from street to street, crossroads to crossroads, evicted through the south gate, and beheaded to the south of the city. They ask about him: ‘My good man, what has this man done that he is bound with a stout rope… and beheaded to the south of the city?’ They answer: ‘My good man, this man, an enemy of the king, has taken the life of a man or a woman. That is why the rulers, having had him seized, inflicted such a punishment upon him.’”— SN 42:13
“There are four kinds of persons to be found in the world. Which four? There is the case where a certain person takes life, takes what is not given [steals], engages in illicit sex, lies, speaks divisively, speaks abusively, engages in idle chatter; is covetous, malevolent, & holds wrong views. On the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell.
“But there is also the case where a certain person takes life… holds wrong views, (yet) on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the good destinations, in the heavenly world.
“And there is the case where a certain person abstains from taking life, abstains from taking what is not given… is not covetous, not malevolent, & holds right views. On the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the good destinations, in the heavenly world.
“But there is also the case where a certain person abstains from taking life, abstains from taking what is not given… is not covetous, not malevolent, & holds right views, (yet) on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell….
“In the case of the person who takes life… (yet) on the break-up of the body, after death, reappears in the good destinations, in the heavenly world: either earlier he performed fine kamma that is to be felt as pleasant, or later he performed fine kamma that is to be felt as pleasant, or at the time of death he adopted & carried out right views. Because of that, on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the good destinations, in the heavenly world. But as for the results of taking life… holding wrong views, he will feel them either right here & now, or later (in this lifetime), or following that….
“In the case of the person who abstains from taking life… but on the break-up of the body, after death, reappears in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell: either earlier he performed evil kamma that is to be felt as painful, or later he performed evil kamma that is to be felt as painful, or at the time of death he adopted & carried out wrong views. Because of that, on the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell. But as for the results of abstaining from taking life… holding right views, he will feel them either right here & now, or later, or following that.”— MN 136
As for kamma on the level of form, it offers even greater pleasure than skillful sensual kamma.
“And what is the development of concentration that, when developed & pursued, leads to a pleasant abiding in the here & now? There is the case where a monk enters & remains in the first jhāna… the second jhāna… the third jhāna… the fourth jhāna…. This is the development of concentration that, when developed & pursued, leads to a pleasant abiding in the here & now.”— AN 4:41
The pleasures of jhāna grow increasingly more refined with each stage.
“Now there is the case where a monk—quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful qualities—enters & remains in the first jhāna…. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with sensuality, that is an affliction for him. Just as pain arises as an affliction for a healthy person, even so the attention to perceptions dealing with sensuality that beset the monk is an affliction for him….
“Then again, there is the case where a monk… enters & remains in the second jhāna…. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with directed thought, that is an affliction for him….
“Then again, there is the case where a monk… enters & remains in the third jhāna…. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with rapture, that is an affliction for him….
“Then again, there is the case where a monk… enters & remains in the fourth jhāna…. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with equanimity, that is an affliction for him.”— AN 9:34
Jhāna not only provides pleasure in the here-&-now, but can also supply the basis for a refined state of becoming after death.
“There is the case where an individual… enters & remains in the first jhāna…. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the devas of Brahmā’s retinue. The devas of Brahmā’s retinue, monks, have a life span of an eon….
“Again, there is the case where an individual… enters & remains in the second jhāna…. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the Abhassara [Radiant] devas. The Abhassara devas, monks, have a life span of two eons….
“Again, there is the case where an individual… enters & remains in the third jhāna…. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the Subhakiṇha [Beautiful Black] devas. The Subhakiṇha devas, monks, have a life span of four eons….
“Again, there is the case where an individual… enters & remains in the fourth jhāna…. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the Vehapphala [Sky-fruit] devas. The Vehapphala devas, monks, have a life span of 500 eons.”— AN 4:123
The same pleasures in the afterlife can also be attained through the cultivation of the four awareness-releases, also called the brahma-vihāras.
“There is the case where an individual keeps pervading the first direction [the east]—as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth—with an awareness imbued with good will. Thus he keeps pervading above, below, & all around, everywhere & in every respect the all-encompassing cosmos with an awareness imbued with good will: abundant, expansive, limitless, free from hostility, free from ill will. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the devas of Brahmā’s retinue….
“Again, there is the case where an individual keeps pervading the first direction—as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth—with an awareness imbued with compassion…. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the Abhassara [Radiant] devas….
“Again, there is the case where an individual keeps pervading the first direction—as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth—with an awareness imbued with empathetic joy…. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the Subhakiṇha [Beautiful Black] devas….
“Again, there is the case where an individual keeps pervading the first direction—as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth—with an awareness imbued with equanimity. Thus he keeps pervading above, below, & all around, everywhere & in every respect the all-encompassing cosmos with an awareness imbued with equanimity: abundant, expansive, limitless, free from hostility, free from ill will. He savors that, longs for that, finds satisfaction through that. Staying there—fixed on that, dwelling there often, not falling away from that—then when he dies he reappears in the company of the Vehapphala [Sky-fruit] devas.”— AN 4:125
Kamma on the level of formlessness offers even more refined pleasures than these, both in the present and in future lives.
“Then again, there is the case where a monk… enters & remains in the dimension of the infinitude of space. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with form, that is an affliction for him….
“Then again, there is the case where a monk… enters & remains in the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with the dimension of the infinitude of space, that is an affliction for him….
“Then again, there is the case where a monk… enters & remains in the dimension of nothingness. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, that is an affliction for him….
“Then again, there is the case where a monk… enters & remains in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. If, as he remains there, he is beset with attention to perceptions dealing with the dimension of nothingness, that is an affliction for him.”— AN 9:34
“Then again, the disciple of the noble ones… attains the dimension of nothingness…. With the break-up of the body, after death, it’s possible that this leading-on consciousness of his will go to the dimension of nothingness….
“Then again, the disciple of the noble ones considers this: ‘Sensuality here & now; sensuality in lives to come; sensual perceptions here & now; sensual perceptions in lives to come; forms here & now; forms in lives to come; form-perceptions here & now; form-perceptions in lives to come; perceptions of the imperturbable; perceptions of the dimension of nothingness: All are perceptions. Where they cease without remainder: that is peaceful, that is exquisite, i.e., the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.’ Practicing & frequently abiding in this way, his mind acquires confidence in that dimension. There being full confidence, he either attains the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception now or else is committed to discernment. With the break-up of the body, after death, it’s possible that this leading-on consciousness of his will go to the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is declared to be the practice conducive to the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.”— MN 106
These, then, are the possibilities that can be provided by the field of kamma. They range from the miseries of beings in the hell and animal realms, through the mixed pleasures and pains of the human realm, the sensual pleasures of the lower heavens, to the refined pleasures of form and formlessness in the higher heavens. The precise manner in which actions of different levels interact in opening and closing possibilities for happiness and understanding in a particular moment can be very complex, but three patterns emerge from the above passages.
The first is that the more refined the kamma, the more refined the resulting happiness. The kamma of form provides a happiness more refined than does sensual kamma; and formless kamma, a happiness more refined than does the kamma of form.
The second pattern is that all of these levels of kamma place limitations on the levels of becoming they can produce, although the limitations are more severe in some cases than in others. The most severe come from unskillful sensual kamma, whether it leads to rebirth in the lower realms or on the human realm. In the lower realms, one has no opportunity to develop skillful kamma at all, as one is too preoccupied with suffering and too limited in the powers available to the body in which one is reborn. On the human level, one is limited in terms of such things as one’s resources, social position, and bodily strength, although here it is possible to develop skillful kamma within these limitations. Still, the restrictions posed by unskillful sensual kamma explain why the Buddha placed generosity and virtue at the very beginning of the path of practice he recommended to all people, whether they wanted to go beyond becoming or not, so that they could create maximal conditions for the further pursuit of lasting happiness.
Skillful kamma on the levels of sensuality, form, and formlessness open wider ranges of possibilities, both in this life and in future lives, whether in the human realm or in the higher realms. The limitations on these happy realms, however, are two. The first is that the pleasures they afford can be so alluring that, without understanding where they come from, one may abandon skillful behavior in the attempt to prolong them. This is why discernment is such an important part of the Buddhist path even on the mundane level, for it enables one to develop the proper attitude toward pleasure, using the opportunities provided by pleasure for even more skillful behavior.
The second limitation is that none of the results of the levels of kamma underlying these realms can last forever. In fact, the conditions these levels of kamma make possible are so fleeting that even the most lasting states of becoming based on them require constant upkeep. This is why the Buddha taught that the only truly reliable happiness lies in putting an end to becoming. But to do that, one first needs to watch how it is formed, so that one’s efforts will be based on understanding rather than the sheer force of desire.
This is where the third pattern becomes relevant: Even though the human realm is classed as a sensual level, the human mind is capable of creating and dwelling in any level of becoming. Not only can it experience sensual pleasure and sensual pain, but it can also experience jhāna on the levels of form and formlessness.
This range of possibilities carries two practical consequences. The first is that if the mind is properly focused, it can watch the different levels of becoming as they form and disband, and thus gain insight into the process of becoming as it happens. Because jhāna provides this level of focus, it is the ideal level of becoming to function as part of the path. However, the second consequence is that even though the human mind is capable of attaining a level of becoming that might serve as the path to the end of suffering, that attainment is unstable. Thus the mind must remain heedful not to nourish causal factors that might look innocent but would lead it back into levels of becoming destructive to the path.
This is why the Buddha stressed heedfulness as an essential quality even for those relatively advanced in the practice (DN 16). And this is why he tried to provide an all-around picture of the factors giving rise to becoming. In the course of his Awakening he realized that the possibilities offered by the field of kamma are only part of the picture. To fully understand the picture, and to be fully alert to the dangers that can pull one off the path, he saw that it was also necessary to understand the way these possibilities become actualized by the moisture of craving and clinging—the topic to which we will now turn.
